Norman-Arab-Byzantine Sicily

Church of San Giovanni degli Eremiti, Palermo

Introduction

In the early 11th century, Sicily and its surrounding islands were governed by an Islamic emirate under the Kalbid dynasty, with Palermo as its centre. Meanwhile, on the southern Italian mainland, power was fragmented among the Byzantine Empire, the Lombard principalities, and the Papacy, all engaged in recurring conflicts and in need of capable military support. Into this volatile setting arrived the Normans, fierce and highly mobile warriors whose services were widely sought after.

The Normans were descendants of Scandinavian Vikings who had settled in northern France, and whose leader Rollo had established the Duchy of Normandy in 911. They had converted to Christianity and intermarried with the local Frankish population, adopting their dialect of Old French and embracing their law and customs. Yet they remained renowned throughout Europe as formidable warriors and adventurers, always seeking land, wealth, and opportunity abroad.

Initially invited to southern Italy as mercenaries, the Normans quickly became power brokers in their own right, thanks to the achievements of the sons of Tancred of Hauteville, who had arrived in Italy in the 1030s. William and Drogo of Hauteville, who initially served under the Byzantines, gradually asserted control over Apulia, Calabria, and much of Campania. In 1061, their younger brothers Robert Guiscard and Roger began the conquest of Sicily. Roger was granted the title of Grand Count of Sicily in 1071, they captured Palermo the following year, and by 1091 the conquest of the island had been completed.

The Norman holdings in southern Italy were fragmented until 1130, when Roger I’s son, Roger II, united them and established the Kingdom of Sicily with Palermo as its capital. Under his rule (1130-1154), Sicily became a major naval power in the Mediterranean. His admiral, George of Antioch, captured a chain of North African coastal cities from the Zirids and carried out significant operations against the Byzantine Empire. Although these possessions were lost to the Almohads during the reign of William I the Bad (1154-1166), Sicily remained a stable and well-administered kingdom. Under William II the Good (1166-1189), the Kingdom of Sicily enjoyed a period of peace, flourishing as a vibrant hub of commerce, diplomacy, and scholarship, and ranking among the wealthiest states in Europe.

Following the death of William II, the crown passed through Roger II’s daughter Constance to the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty, ending Norman rule in Sicily.

Throughout the 12th century, Sicilian society was consciously multi-ethnic and multi-religious. Muslims continued to form a large part of the population, while a substantial Greek Orthodox community endured, reflecting the island’s Byzantine past. Latin Christians were primarily the Norman elite, Lombard settlers from mainland Italy, and parts of the urban population encouraged to adopt Western Christianity. Vibrant Jewish communities also thrived in several cities and towns. The kingdom pursued a policy of practical religious tolerance and administrative inclusivity, allowing these groups to coexist and collaborate in a flourishing hybrid culture that enriched governance, science, literature, and the arts.

This fusion is most striking in architecture. Norman layouts, such as Latin-cross basilicas with monumental twin-tower façades, coexist with centralised plans of Byzantine origin. The eastern apses of churches and cloisters blend Norman structural forms with Islamic and Byzantine decorative vocabulary, including blind arches, horizontal string courses, and richly patterned stonework. Interiors are adorned with dazzling mosaics of remarkable sophistication, following iconographic programs derived from Byzantine tradition. Arab influence is also evident in the use of pointed arches – which in Sicily never adopted the horseshoe shape – and in elaborate muqarnas ceilings. This synthesis extends to palatial architecture and landscape design, with lush, serene gardens of Islamic inspiration creating spaces of pleasure for the Christian rulers (sollazzi regi).

The most remarkable examples of Norman–Arab–Byzantine architecture date from the reigns of Roger II, William I, and William II, with the finest concentration found in and near Palermo. Nine monuments from this period – including the Palatine Chapel in Palermo and the cathedrals of Cefalù and Monreale – are now recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Sites

These portfolios gather photographs of all the Norman-Arab-Byzantine sites included on the UNESCO list, along with several other notable monuments. The primary focus is on the city of Palermo.

Church of San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi | Via Salvatore Cappello & Via Enrico Piraino, Palermo | 1071
Norman Arch | Corso Umberto I & Via Conte Ruggero, Mazara del Vallo | 1072-1073
Catania Cathedral | Piazza del Duomo, Catania | 1078-1094
Mazara del Vallo Cathedral | Piazzetta Santa Caterina, Mazara del Vallo | 1086-1093
Church of San Nicolò Regale | Via Molo Comandante G. Caito & Via Marina, Mazara del Vallo | 1124
Admiral’s Bridge | Corso dei Mille & Via Giuseppe Bennici, Palermo | 1125-1131
Norman Palace | Piazza del Parlamento, Palermo | since 1072; Palatine Chapel – 1129-1143 (muqarnas & some mosaics – mid-12th century)
Church of San Giovanni degli Eremiti | Via dei Benedettini & Largo Michele Gerbasi, Palermo | 1132-1136
Cefalù Cathedral | Piazza del Duomo, Cefalù | 1131-1267
Church of Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio (La Martorana) | Piazza Bellini, Palermo | 1143
Church of San Cataldo | Piazza Bellini, Palermo | 1154-1160
Scibene (Uscibene) Palace | Fondo de Caro, Palermo | 1130-1154 (?)
Zisa Palace | Piazza Zisa, Palermo | 1165-1175
Cuba Palace | Corso Calatafimi 100, Palermo | 1180
Cubula | Via Francesco Speciale, Via Aurelio Zancla & Via Michele Titone, Palermo | 1184
Monreale Cathedral | Piazza del Guglielmo II, Monreale | 1172-1267
Palermo Cathedral | Via Vittorio Emanuele, Piazza Sett’Angeli, Via Incoronazione & Via Matteo Bonello, Palermo | 1184-1185
Basilica of the Most Holy Trinity (La Magione) | Via Magione & Via Teatro Garibaldi, Palermo | 1191

Notable religious structures in Palermo missing from these portfolios include the Coronation Chapel (after 1130), the Church of the Holy Spirit (1173-1178), the Church of Santa Cristina la Vetere (c. 1174), and the Church of Santa Maria Maddalena (after 1187). Among the secular monuments, the Favara Palace (11th-12th century) and the Upper Cuba Palace (late 12th century) are absent. Beyond the major centres of Sicily, the most interesting omitted structures include the Church of Santi Pietro e Paolo d’Agrò near Casalvecchio Siculo (1116-1117) and the Church of the Holy Trinity of Delia near Castelvetrano (first half of the 12th century).